The Graveyard of Empires: Why The Middle East Cannot be Conquered

The Middle East, often referred to as the “graveyard of empires,” has witnessed the rise and fall of numerous dominant powers throughout history. This article explores the long and well-documented history of various empires, from the ancient Egyptian campaign at Kadesh to the Crusades, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and modern-day American support for Israel.

To listen to the podcast Episode of this article, please check The Graveyard of Empires Podcast Episode here.

Each campaign sought to dominate the region but ultimately faced insurmountable resistance from the peoples of the Levant and wider region. Through historical analysis, this article aims to understand why this region has repeatedly thwarted imperial ambitions.

Check more of my articles and essays on Palestine here.

The Graveyard of Empires: The Middle East

“The graveyard of empires” is a term commonly used to describe the historical tendency of powerful empires to meet their downfall when attempting to conquer or control the vast and complex region of Afghanistan. While the exact origin of the phrase is unclear, it gained prominence during the 19th and 20th centuries as Western powers, particularly Britain and the Soviet Union, faced significant challenges in their military campaigns in Afghanistan; however, the region more broadly adheres to this ordained fate.

The Middle East, a region of immense strategic, economic, and cultural significance, has been the focal point of numerous imperial campaigns. Despite their power and resources, many empires have failed to establish lasting control over the region. The term “graveyard of empires” aptly describes the Middle East’s historical role in the downfall of these dominant forces. This article examines the historical context and specific campaigns of the ancient Egyptians, Crusaders, Soviets, and modern Americans to understand the enduring resistance of the Levantine peoples.

The Story Begins: Why the Middle East Cannot Be Conquered

It begins, as it often does, with a march. In 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great entered the fabled city of Babylon, not with a thunderous battle cry, but with a whisper of strategy and cunning. Babylon fell without resistance. It was a victory that crowned the rise of the Persian Empire. But what history often forgets is that Babylon itself had once ruled this very region, having overthrown the Assyrians, who had supplanted the Akkadians. Each empire, built on the bones of the last, had imagined itself eternal. Each, in turn, was buried by the sands of resistance.

This is the pattern that defines the Middle East. From the mountains of Afghanistan to the plains of Mesopotamia, empire after empire has come seeking control, believing their conquest would be the final word. And each has discovered the same bitter truth: the Middle East does not submit. It endures, it resists, it survives. It has become known as the “graveyard of empires,” and for good reason.

To understand this indomitable resistance, we journey through time, beginning with the first great dreamer of empire: Sargon of Akkad.

Sargon the Great: The First to Fall

In the 24th century BCE, Sargon rose from obscure beginnings—a cupbearer turned conqueror—to forge the world’s first empire. His Akkadian forces swept through Sumer, crushing rival city-states and stretching into the Levant. His goal was nothing short of unity: to bring disparate peoples under a single rule, a single banner.

But conquering land is not the same as holding it. The geography of the Middle East—its deserts, mountains, and fractured landscapes—made control a logistical nightmare. More than that, Sargon faced a human terrain equally difficult: a mosaic of cultures, languages, and loyalties. Uprisings flared like brushfires. The Gutians, mountain tribes from the east, harassed his borders. City-states like Uruk rebelled repeatedly. The empire stretched thin. It would not outlive his grandson.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Sargon’s campaigns extended across the Fertile Crescent, including parts of the modern-day Middle East. He aimed to conquer the diverse and complex region to create a unified empire that would bring together disparate cultures under a single political and economic system.

Challenges Faced

1. Geographical Diversity: The varied terrain, from deserts to mountains and fertile plains, presented significant logistical challenges in maintaining control over distant territories.
2. Cultural Resistance: The region was home to a mosaic of cultures, languages, and religions, each with its own identity. This diversity led to resistance from local populations who sought to preserve their autonomy and traditions.
3. Rebellions and Instability: Sargon faced numerous uprisings throughout his reign, as local leaders and populations resisted Akkadian rule. These rebellions were a constant drain on the empire’s resources and military.

Outcome

Although Sargon successfully established a large empire during his lifetime, his successors were unable to maintain control over the far-flung territories. The Akkadian Empire eventually fragmented under the pressure of internal rebellions and external invasions, highlighting the difficulties of sustaining long-term control over the Middle East.

Summary:

• Period: 2334–2279 BCE
• Territory: Spanned from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean
• Challenges: Diverse cultures, logistical difficulties, constant uprisings
• Fall: Crumbled under rebellion and external pressure from the Gutians

Ramses II at Kadesh: Egypt’s Great Gamble

Fast forward to 1274 BCE. Pharaoh Ramses II, Egypt’s warrior-king, marches his chariots north to Kadesh, hoping to seize control of the Levant from the rising Hittite Empire. What follows is one of the most dramatic battles of the ancient world—and one of the most mythologized.

Egyptian records, etched into temple walls, claim Ramses stood alone against the Hittites, like a god of war. The reality was less divine. The battle ended in a stalemate. Despite years of campaigning, Egypt could not hold the Levant. The cost was too high, the resistance too fierce.

Ultimately, Egypt and Hatti signed the first recorded peace treaty in history. Not out of goodwill, but necessity. Even Ramses, God-king of the Nile, learned that the Middle East yields to no foreign crown.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Ramses II launched a major military expedition into the Levant to assert Egyptian control over the city of Kadesh, a critical stronghold held by the Hittite Empire. He aimed to solidify Egypt’s dominance in the region and secure trade and military advantages.

Challenges Faced

1. Hittite Resistance: The Hittites had superior intelligence and used strategic ambushes to counter the Egyptian advance.
2. Geographic Vulnerability: Ramses operated far from his logistical base in Egypt, making supply lines fragile and reinforcements slow.
3. Propaganda vs. Reality: Though Egyptian inscriptions hailed it as a heroic stand, the battle was a costly stalemate that exposed limits to Egyptian power.

Outcome

Despite initial successes, the Egyptians faced fierce resistance from the Hittites and their Levantine allies. The battle ended in a stalemate, leading to the first recorded peace treaty in history. The Egyptian Empire’s ambitions were curtailed, highlighting the region’s resilience against foreign domination. This overextension of resources marked the beginning of the end of the strength of the ancient Egyptian empire, so much so that soon afterwards it became almost impossible for the Egyptian state to even defend its own borders.

Summary:

• Period: 1274 BCE
• Conflict: Battle of Kadesh between Egypt and the Hittite Empire
• Outcome: Stalemate and first recorded peace treaty (Treaty of Kadesh)
• Legacy: Demonstrated the strategic difficulty of dominating the Levant

Alexander the Great: Conqueror Without a Crown

In the 4th century BCE, a new force swept through the region. Alexander of Macedon, scarcely thirty years old, dismantled the Persian Empire with clinical precision. Babylon, Persepolis, Susa—all fell before him. For a moment, it seemed the Middle East was his.

But Alexander understood what others did not: military victory was not enough. He married Persian nobility, adopted their dress, tried to fuse East and West. His generals balked. His men mutinied. In the eastern reaches of his empire—modern Afghanistan and beyond—he faced relentless guerrilla warfare. The further he marched, the less he ruled. His dream died with him in Babylon. Within a generation, his empire fractured.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Alexander sought to overthrow the Persian Achaemenid Empire and unify the Middle East under a Hellenistic vision that fused Greek and Persian culture and governance.

Challenges Faced

1. Overextension: Rapid expansion into diverse and distant regions strained logistics and communication.
2. Local Resistance: From Persian nobles to Central Asian insurgents like Spitamenes, resistance was constant and bloody.
3. Cultural Divide: His efforts to integrate Persian elites alienated his own Macedonian troops, causing mutinies and discontent.

Outcome

Though Alexander achieved military dominance, he failed to establish a sustainable empire. After his death, his generals fragmented his holdings into rival kingdoms. The Middle East remained ungovernable under one rule.

Summary

• Period: 336–323 BCE
• Territory: Extended from Greece to India
• Strategy: Integration of Greek and Persian cultures, intermarriage
• Challenges: Uprisings, loss of loyalty among own troops, logistical overreach, Distance, tribal resistance, cultural fragmentation
• Fall: Empire collapsed after his death due to fragmentation and resistance, no lasting control over the Middle East

Are the Qassam Brigades the Modern Warrior Monks of the Holy Land?

The Crusaders: Holy War, Hollow Victory

Nearly a millennium later, a new kind of conqueror came. European knights, bearing crosses on their chests and swords in hand, marched east to reclaim the Holy Land. They captured Jerusalem in 1099, baptizing the city in blood. Crusader states sprang up like weeds.

But the soil rejected them. Muslim leaders, most famously Saladin, rallied the fractured Islamic world. The Crusaders, divided and overextended, could not hold what they had seized. By 1291, their last stronghold fell. They returned to Europe, their dream of Christian dominion shattered.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

The Crusaders aimed to establish permanent Christian rule over Jerusalem and the broader Levant, forming several Crusader states to secure long-term control.

Challenges Faced

1. Fragmented Rule: Crusader states were disorganized and poorly managed, with internal rivalries and lack of coordination.
2. Local Resistance: Muslim powers, especially under Saladin, united to resist the European invaders.
3. Cultural and Religious Divide: Crusaders never integrated with local populations, remaining foreign occupiers.

Outcome

Initial victories faded. Jerusalem was recaptured by Muslim forces, and by 1291 the last Crusader strongholds had fallen. The Holy Land slipped from their grasp, never to be regained.

Summary:

• Period: 1096–1291 CE
• Territory: Jerusalem and the Levant

• Key Events: Siege of Jerusalem (1099), Battle of Hattin (1187), Fall of Acre (1291)
• Challenges: Disunity, lack of local support, logistical and cultural disconnect
• Fall: Lost territories due to sustained resistance and counter-offensives; failed to establish lasting presence

Napoleon in Egypt: Enlightenment Meets Resistance

In 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte brought the Enlightenment to Egypt—or so he claimed. With him came scientists, scholars, dreams of empire cloaked in modernity. He defeated the Mamluks with ease. But the people did not accept him. Revolts erupted. British warships cut his supply lines. His army was stranded.

In Syria, his campaign collapsed entirely. At Acre, he was halted by stubborn Ottoman defenders and a brutal siege. Napoleon fled back to France, leaving his soldiers behind.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Napoleon aimed to make Egypt a permanent French colony and a launch point for greater influence across the Middle East and into India.

Challenges Faced

1. Local Uprisings: Egyptians resisted foreign rule, especially during the brutal Cairo revolt.
2. British Naval Supremacy: The destruction of the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile cut off reinforcements.
3. Environmental and Logistical Strain: Harsh climate, unfamiliar terrain, and disease took a severe toll.

Outcome

Napoleon abandoned the campaign and returned to France. His dream of a French empire in the East died, but the expedition laid the groundwork for future Egyptian modernization and nationalist movements.

Summary:

• Period: 1798–1801
• Territory: Primarily Egypt, with ambitions in Syria
• Motivations: Disrupt British access to India, spread Enlightenment ideals
• Challenges: Guerrilla resistance, British naval superiority, logistical issues
• Outcome: Failed Syrian campaign, withdrawal, and abandonment of French troops
• Fall: Withdrawal and surrender to British and Ottoman forces

The French in Syria: Colonialism Comes Undone

After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was carved up like a carcass. France took Syria, imagining it could mold the region in its image. But the Syrians, promised independence, rebelled. From the Battle of Maysalun to the Great Revolt, the resistance never stopped.

French bombs rained on Damascus. Entire neighborhoods burned. But the will of the people endured. By 1946, France was gone. Its empire, already fraying, would never recover.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

France sought to consolidate its empire by establishing permanent colonial rule in Syria and Lebanon, using the League of Nations mandate system to justify its presence.

Challenges Faced

1. Syrian Nationalism: Armed revolts like the Great Syrian Revolt (1925–27) showed deep-rooted opposition.
2. Sectarian Tensions: France played minority groups against each other, stoking long-term instability.
3. Global Pressure: World War II weakened France’s position, and Britain and local leaders pushed for withdrawal.

Outcome

Despite years of violent suppression, France failed to win loyalty or establish legitimacy. Syria achieved full independence in 1946, expelling the French after nearly three decades of resistance.

Summary

• Period: 1920–1946
• Key Conflicts: Battle of Maysalun, Great Syrian Revolt
• Tactics: Divide-and-rule, sectarian manipulation, martial law
• Fall: French withdrawal due to internal resistance and global pressure

The British Empire: Pride Before the Fall

The British, too, thought themselves masters of the East. In the 19th century, they marched into Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia, believing in their divine right to rule. In Kabul, their troops were slaughtered during retreat. In Persia, their invasions achieved nothing but resentment. In Arabia, their alliances crumbled as soon as they were forged.

The lesson? Superiority on paper means little against people who will not be ruled. By the mid-20th century, Britain was retreating from empire. The Middle East had broken its pride.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Britain sought to control Afghanistan as a buffer state to protect its Indian empire and prevent Russian encroachment.

Challenges Faced

1. Hostile Terrain: Harsh mountains and remote valleys made occupation difficult.
2. Tribal Warfare: Local leaders refused to submit to centralized British rule.
3. Underestimation of Resistance: The British misjudged both Afghan loyalty and resolve.

Outcome

The First Anglo-Afghan War ended in one of the worst defeats in British military history. Later efforts fared no better. Afghanistan remained ungovernable by outsiders.

Summary

• Period: 1839–1842 (First campaign)
• Territory: Afghanistan
• Challenges: Geography, tribal independence, imperial hubris
• Key Events: First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842), Anglo-Persian War (1856–1857)
• Failures: Military defeats, overextension, tribal resistance
• Impact: Humiliation and decline of British influence in the region
• Fall: Full retreat; catastrophic losses; symbolic imperial failure

The Soviets in Afghanistan: A Superpower Humbled

In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up a faltering communist regime. They believed it would be quick, surgical, decisive. It was none of those things.

Instead, they faced a war of attrition. The mujahideen, armed and funded by the U.S. and its allies, knew the terrain. They knew how to wait. Ten years later, the Soviets withdrew, bloodied and defeated. Two years after that, the USSR collapsed.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

The USSR invaded to support Afghanistan’s communist government and establish regional control during the Cold War.

Challenges Faced

1. Guerrilla Warfare: The mujahideen, supported by U.S. and Saudi aid, fought using hit-and-run tactics.
2. Mountain Warfare: Soviet forces struggled with unfamiliar terrain and hostile local populations.
3. Economic and Political Cost: The war drained Soviet resources and morale.

Outcome

The Soviets withdrew in 1989, admitting defeat. The war hastened the collapse of the Soviet Union and left Afghanistan in chaos, eventually leading to Taliban control.

Summary

• Period: 1979–1989
• Territory: Afghanistan
• Challenges: Insurgency, international support for rebels, political dissent at home
• Fall: Withdrawal; empire weakened; symbolic Cold War defeat

The United States: The Latest to Bleed

After 9/11, the U.S. launched wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, seeking vengeance, stability, transformation. They toppled regimes, built bases, held elections.

But victory remained elusive. In Iraq, sectarian violence exploded. In Afghanistan, the Taliban returned. Trillions were spent. Thousands of lives lost. When the U.S. finally withdrew from Kabul in 2021, the images evoked Saigon in 1975. Chaos, collapse, and defeat.

Like every empire before it, America believed its power unmatched. But the Middle East reminded it otherwise.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

The U.S. sought to eradicate terrorism, topple hostile regimes, and install democratic governments in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Challenges Faced

1. Endless Insurgency: Both countries erupted into guerrilla warfare and sectarian chaos.
2. Cultural Misunderstanding: U.S. policymakers underestimated local dynamics and resistance.
3. Corruption and Collapse: Attempts at nation-building faltered amid fraud, failure, and fatigue.

Outcome

Despite trillions spent and thousands of lives lost, the U.S. withdrew. The Taliban returned to power. Iraq destabilized further. Democracy did not take root.

Summary

• Period: 2001–2021 (Afghanistan); 2003–2011 (Iraq)
• Territory: Afghanistan and Iraq
• Objectives: Counterterrorism, nation-building, regime change
• Outcomes: Taliban resurgence, rise of ISIS, loss of credibility
• Cost: Over $2 trillion, 7,000+ coalition casualties, countless civilian deaths
• Challenges: Insurgency, occupation fatigue, failed governance
• Fall: Withdrawal; rise of ISIS and Taliban; global reputational damage

Israel and the Unfinished Conflict

Backed by the U.S., Israel was established in 1948 and has fought ceaselessly to secure its borders and its dominance. Yet despite military superiority, it has failed to achieve peace. Palestinians continue to resist, through protests, uprisings, and international advocacy.

Like so many before them, Israel—with all its firepower—cannot extinguish the will of a people fighting for dignity and self-determination. The occupation continues, but the end is written in the patterns of the past.

Attempted Conquest of the Middle East

Israel, with unwavering U.S. support, has aimed to secure complete control over Palestine while maintaining regional dominance and quashing dissent.

Challenges Faced

1. Palestinian Resistance: Intifadas, activism, and armed struggle persist despite military crackdowns.
2. International Isolation: Global opinion is shifting, with growing condemnation of Israeli policies.
3. Moral Crisis: U.S. complicity has damaged its credibility as a proponent of democracy and human rights.

Outcome

Palestine remains unbowed. The Israeli occupation is entrenched, but peace remains elusive. The American-Israeli alliance now stands on increasingly fragile moral ground.

Summary

• Period: 1948–present
• Territory: Israel/Palestine
• Challenges: Popular resistance, international backlash, moral contradictions
• Efforts: Military campaigns, settlements, peace processes, normalization attempts
• Outcome: Persistent instability, unresolved conflict
• Fall: Ongoing conflict; regional instability; deepening global divisions

Discussion of the Indominable Middle East

Why the Middle East Cannot Be Conquered

What makes this region so uniquely unconquerable? It is not just the terrain, though that plays a role. Nor is it simply religion, though it provides strength. It is the people. Diverse, rooted, fierce in their defence of autonomy. They have seen conquerors come and go. And they know that no empire lasts forever.

From Akkad to America, the story repeats. The names change. The uniforms change. But the end remains the same. The Middle East does not bend. It buries. Let’s explore in more detail why:

Resilience of Levantine Peoples

A common thread in these historical campaigns is the remarkable resilience of the Levantine peoples. Cultural cohesion, strong religious beliefs, and a deep connection to the land have fuelled their resistance against foreign domination. This resilience has repeatedly frustrated the ambitions of external powers.

Geopolitical Complexity

The Middle East’s geopolitical complexity has also played a significant role. The region’s diverse ethnic and religious landscape, combined with its strategic importance, has made it a challenging environment for any single power to control. The interplay of local and international forces has often undermined imperial campaigns.

Lessons for Modern Empires

The historical record of the Middle East as the “graveyard of empires” offers valuable lessons for modern powers. Understanding the region’s unique dynamics is crucial for any engagement. The failures of past empires underscore the importance of respecting local cultures and fostering genuine, sustainable relationships rather than imposing external control.

Current American-Israeli Colonization: A Predestined Failure

The current American-Israeli colonization of Palestine echoes the failed attempts of past empires to conquer the Middle East. Despite their military and economic might, these powers have consistently encountered resistance and ultimately faced defeat. The ongoing occupation of Palestine is poised to follow a similar trajectory, marking a pivotal moment in the decline of American significance and dominance on the global stage.

Context of the Occupation

The American-Israeli colonization of Palestine dates back to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 and the subsequent displacement of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes. Since then, Israel, with significant support from the United States, has maintained control over Palestinian territories through military occupation, settlement expansion, and the imposition of restrictive policies.

Inevitable Failure

As with all who have come before them, the current American-Israeli colonization is predestined to fail in its quest to conquer the Middle East. The occupation of Palestine, characterized by human rights abuses, land seizures, and the suppression of Palestinian rights, has sparked international condemnation and fuelled ongoing resistance. The resilience of the Palestinian people and the solidarity of global movements for justice and freedom will ultimately prove insurmountable for the occupying forces.

Beginning of the End of the Empire

The continuation of the American-Israeli occupation of Palestine marks the beginning of the end of American significance and dominance on a global scale. The moral and ethical bankruptcy of supporting such colonial endeavours undermines America’s standing as a champion of democracy and human rights. Moreover, the occupation fuels anti-American sentiment and erodes alliances, further diminishing America’s influence and credibility in the international community.

The current American-Israeli colonization of Palestine represents a tragic continuation of the historical pattern of imperial overreach and failure in the Middle East. As with past empires, the occupation is doomed to fail in its quest for dominance. The resistance of the Palestinian people and the global outcry against injustice signal a turning point in the decline of American significance and dominance on the world stage. It is imperative that the international community stand in solidarity with the Palestinian cause and work towards a just and lasting resolution to the conflict, rooted in equality, justice, and self-determination.

The Final Lesson from The Past

The world’s most powerful empires have all passed through the Middle East, believing themselves destined to rule. Each left behind ruins and regret. The region remains, bloodied but unbowed.

Perhaps it is time to stop trying to conquer it. To stop mistaking strength for right. To see the Middle East not as a prize to be won, but as a land to be respected.

The graveyard of empires is not a myth. It is a warning. And history, for those who listen, has been shouting it for thousands of years.

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References

1. Kitchen, K. A. (2003). On the reliability of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
2. Riley-Smith, J. (2005). The Crusades: A History. Yale University Press.
3. Coll, S. (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin Books.
4. Morris, B. (2001). Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. Vintage.
5. Fisk, R. (2006). The Great War for Civilization: The Conquest of the Middle East. Vintage.
6. Arrian.Anabasis of Alexander. Translated by P.A. Brunt, Harvard University Press, 1976.
   • Used for: Accounts of Alexander’s conquests, Siege of Tyre, and the Mutiny at Opis.
7. Curtius Rufus, Quintus.The History of Alexander. Translated by John Yardley, Penguin Classics, 2004.
   • Used for: Additional narratives of Alexander’s campaigns and leadership struggles.
8. Fulcher of Chartres.Chronicle of the First Crusade (c. 1101 CE).
   • Used for: Descriptions of Pope Urban II’s call to Crusade and early motivations.
9. Ibn al-Athir.The Complete History (Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh). Translated selections used in Crusade studies.
   • Used for: Eyewitness-style account of the Siege of Jerusalem (1099).
10. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani. Writings on Saladin.
    • Used for: Descriptions of the Battle of Hattin and the reconquest of Jerusalem.
11. Ibn Khaldun.The Muqaddimah. Translated by Franz Rosenthal, Princeton University Press, 2015.
    • Used for: Reflections on the fate of invading powers and societal cycles.
12. The Poem of Pentaur and The Bulletin of Kadesh. Ancient Egyptian inscriptions commissioned by Ramses II, transcribed in temple reliefs.
    • Used for: First-person accounts of the Battle of Kadesh.
13. Treaty of Kadesh (c. 1259 BCE). Akkadian and Egyptian bilingual inscriptions.
    • Used for: The earliest known peace treaty between Egypt and the Hittite Empire.
14. Napoleon Bonaparte.Proclamation to the Army of the Orient, 1798.
    • Used for: “From the top of these pyramids…” speech and reactions to Cairo Revolt.
15. William Brydon. Survivor account of the First Anglo-Afghan War (1842), published in British military correspondence.
    • Used for: First-person testimony of retreat from Kabul.
16. Gorbachev, Mikhail. Statement on Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan, 1989.
    • Used for: Context of Soviet defeat and policy reversal.
17. UN General Assembly Resolution 194 (1948).
    • Used for: Palestinian right of return and the early legal context of the Israel-Palestine conflict.
18. President Joe Biden. Statement on U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan, August 2021.
    • Used for: Summary of U.S. position at the close of the war.
19. The Rosetta Stone. British Museum & The Description de l’Égypte (Napoleon’s Egypt scholars’ compendium).
    • Used for: Outcomes of Napoleon’s cultural and scientific expedition.
20. Geneva Accords (1988). United Nations-brokered agreement leading to Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan.
    • Used for: Formal end to Soviet occupation.
21. Primary Hittite and Egyptian diplomatic tablets. Istanbul Archaeological Museum and Karnak Temple inscriptions.
    • Used for: Dual-language peace treaties and accounts of Kadesh.
22. Various UN Resolutions and reports regarding the occupation of Palestine, particularly UNGA resolutions 181, 194, and Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338.

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